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A truly autonomous ship needs to be independent in terms of energy. By that I mean that for true endurance autonomy a ship needs to be able to survive on energy that it derives from renewable sources: nature. On the assumption that we have our sums right, and that energy can be harnessed to keep our robot moving at a respectable pace, then we need to store some of the energy for the few times that nature is taking a rest. For that we need batteries, and we need batteries that are light and do not suffer from memory effect and other nasty side effects that nickel cadmium and to a lesser extent nickel metal hydride. For our project this leaves lithium batteries - of which there are many types.

A lithium-ion battery (sometimes Li-ion battery or LIB) is a family of rechargeable battery types in which lithium ions move from the negative electrode to the positive electrode during discharge, and back when charging. Chemistry, performance, cost, and safety characteristics vary across LIB types. Unlike lithium primary batteries (which are disposable), lithium-ion electrochemical cells use an intercalated lithium compound as the electrode material instead of metallic lithium.

 Lockheed lithium ion battery for NASA

Lithium-ion batteries are common in consumer electronics. They are one of the most popular types of rechargeable battery for portable electronics, with one of the best energy densities, no memory effect, and only a slow loss of charge when not in use. Beyond consumer electronics, LIBs are also growing in popularity for military, electric vehicle, and aerospace applications. Research is yielding a stream of improvements to traditional LIB technology, focusing on energy density, durability, cost, and intrinsic safety.

Charge and discharge

During discharge, lithium ions Li+ carry the current from the negative to the positive electrode, through the non-aqueous electrolyte and separator diaphragm.

During charging, an external electrical power source (the charging circuit) applies a higher voltage (but of the same polarity) than that produced by the battery, forcing the current to pass in the reverse direction. The lithium ions then migrate from the positive to the negative electrode, where they become embedded in the porous electrode material in a process known as intercalation.

Cylindrical 18650 lithium iron phosphate cell before closing

Construction

The three primary functional components of a lithium-ion battery are the anode, cathode, and electrolyte. The anode of a conventional lithium-ion cell is made from carbon, the cathode is a metal oxide, and the electrolyte is a lithium salt in an organic solvent.

The most commercially popular anode material is graphite. The cathode is generally one of three materials: a layered oxide (such as lithium cobalt oxide), a polyanion (such as lithium iron phosphate), or a spinel (such as lithium manganese oxide).

The electrolyte is typically a mixture of organic carbonates such as ethylene carbonate or diethyl carbonate containing complexes of lithium ions. These non-aqueous electrolytes generally use non-coordinating anion salts such as lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF6), lithium hexafluoroarsenate monohydrate (LiAsF6), lithium perchlorate (LiClO4), lithium tetrafluoroborate (LiBF4), and lithium triflate (LiCF3SO3).

Depending on materials choices, the voltage, capacity, life, and safety of a lithium-ion battery can change dramatically. Recently, novel architectures using nanotechnology have been employed to improve performance.

Pure lithium is very reactive. It reacts vigorously with water to form lithium hydroxide and hydrogen gas. Thus, a non-aqueous electrolyte is typically used, and a sealed container rigidly excludes water from the battery pack.

Lithium ion batteries are more expensive than NiCd batteries but operate over a wider temperature range with higher energy densities, while being smaller and lighter. They are fragile and so need a protective circuit to limit peak voltages.

Formats 

Li-ion cells are available in various formats, which can generally be divided into four groups:

*Small cylindrical (solid body without terminals, such as those used in laptop batteries) 
*Large cylindrical (solid body with large threaded terminals) 
*Pouch (soft, flat body, such as those used in cell phones) 
*Prismatic (semi-hard plastic case with large threaded terminals, often used in vehicles' traction packs) 

The lack of case gives pouch cells the highest energy density; however, pouch cells (and prismatic cells) require an external means of containment to prevent expansion when their state-of-charge (SOC) level is high.

Varta lithium-ion battery, Museum Autovision, Altlussheim, Germany

LITHIUM METAL

Lithium metal is not directly compatible with water. However, the high gravimetric capacity of lithium metal, 3800 mA/g, and its highly negative standard electrode potential, E^o = -3.045 V, make it extremely attractive when combined as an electrochemical couple with oxygen or water. At a nominal potential of about 3 volts, the theoretical specific energy for a lithium/air battery is over 5000 Wh/kg for the reaction forming LiOH (Li + ¼ O₂ + ½ H₂O = LiOH) and 11,000 Wh/kg for the reaction forming Li₂O₂ (Li + O₂ = Li₂O₂) or for the reaction of lithium with seawater, rivaling the energy density for hydrocarbon fuel cells and far exceeding Li-ion battery chemistry that has a theoretical specific energy of about 400 Wh/kg. With the invention of the protected lithium electrode (PLE), PolyPlus has introduced a unique technology that makes lithium metal electrodes compatible with aqueous and aggressive non-aqueous electrolytes, and enables the development of a new class of high energy density batteries.

PolyPlus uses a solid electrolyte membrane to prevent direct electron transfer from the negative electrode to species in the aqueous electrolyte, therefore extending the voltage window from the oxidative limit of the aqueous electrolyte to the lithium electrode potential (~ 4.5 V). This technology allows the construction of practical aqueous lithium batteries with cell voltages similar to those of conventional Li-ion or lithium primary batteries, but with much higher energy density (for H₂O or O₂ cathodes). We have observed that the PLE is remarkably stable to aqueous electrolytes and does not appear to be susceptible to parasitic side reactions that can lead to self-discharge in batteries. The availability of a PLE enables the development of a new class of stable, high voltage (~ 3 V) aqueous batteries with exceptionally high energy density (> 1000 Wh/l & Wh/kg).

HISTORY

Lithium batteries were first proposed by M.S. Whittingham, now at Binghamton University, while working for Exxon in the 1970s. Whittingham used titanium(II) sulfide as the cathode and lithium metal as the anode.

The reversible intercalation in graphite and intercalation into cathodic oxides was also already discovered in the 1970s by J.O. Besenhard at TU Munich. He also proposed the application as high energy density lithium cells. Electrolyte decomposition and solvent co-intercalation into graphite were severe drawbacks for long battery cycle life.

Primary lithium batteries in which the anode is made from metallic lithium pose safety issues. As a result, lithium-ion batteries were developed in which both anode and cathode are made of a material containing lithium ions.

In 1979, John Goodenough demonstrated a rechargeable cell with high cell voltage in the 4V range using lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2) as the positive electrode and lithium metal as the negative electrode. This innovation provided the positive electrode material which made LIBs possible. LiCoO2 is a stable positive electrode material which acts as a donor of lithium ions, which means that it can be used with a negative electrode material other than lithium metal. By enabling the use of stable and easy-to-handle negative electrode materials, LiCoO2 opened a whole new range of possibilities for novel rechargeable battery systems.

In 1977, Samar Basu demonstrated electrochemical intercalation of lithium in graphite at the University of Pennsylvania. This led to the development of a workable lithium intercalated graphite anode at Bell Labs (LiC6) to provide an alternative to the lithium metal battery.

In 1980, Rachid Yazami also demonstrated the reversible electrochemical intercalation of lithium in graphite. The organic electrolytes available at the time would decompose during charging if used with a graphite negative electrode, preventing the early development of a rechargeable battery which employed the lithium/graphite system. Yazami used a solid electrolyte to demonstrate that lithium could be reversibly intercalated in graphite through an electrochemical mechanism. The graphite anode discovered by Yazami is currently the most commonly used anode in commercial lithium ion batteries.

In 1983, Dr. Michael Thackeray, Goodenough, and coworkers identified manganese spinel as a cathode material. Spinel showed great promise, given its low-cost, good electronic and lithium ion conductivity, and three-dimensional structure, which gives it good structural stability. Although pure manganese spinel fades with cycling, this can be overcome with chemical modification of the material. Manganese spinel is currently used in commercial cells.

In 1985, Akira Yoshino assembled a prototype cell using carbonaceous material into which lithium ions could be inserted as the anode, and as the cathode lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2), which is stable in air. By using an anode material without metallic lithium, safety was dramatically improved over batteries which used lithium metal. The use of lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2) enabled industrial-scale production to be achieved easily.

This was the birth of the current lithium-ion battery.

Nissan Leaf's lithium-ion battery pack

Modern batteries

In 1991, Sony and Asahi Kasei released the first commercial lithium-ion battery.

In 1989, Goodenough and Arumugam Manthiram of the University of Texas at Austin showed that cathodes containing polyanions, e.g., sulfates, produce higher voltages than oxides due to the inductive effect of the polyanion.

In 1996, Goodenough, Akshaya Padhi and coworkers identified lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) and other phospho-olivines (lithium metal phosphates with the same structure as mineral olivine) as cathode materials.

In 2002, Yet-Ming Chiang and his group at MIT showed a substantial improvement in the performance of lithium batteries by boosting the material's conductivity by doping it with aluminium, niobium and zirconium. The exact mechanism causing the increase became the subject of widespread debate.

In 2004, Chiang again increased performance by utilizing iron phosphate particles of less than 100 nanometers in diameter. This decreased particle density almost one hundredfold, increased the cathode's surface area and improved capacity and performance. Commercialization led to a rapid growth in the market for higher capacity LIBs, as well as a patent infringement battle between Chiang and Goodenough.

As of 2011, lithium-ion batteries account for 67% of all portable secondary battery sales in Japan.

Electrochemistry

The three participants in the electrochemical reactions in a lithium-ion battery are the anode, cathode, and electrolyte.

Both the anode and cathode are materials into which, and from which, lithium can migrate. During insertion (or intercalation) lithium moves into the electrode. During the reverse process, extraction (or deintercalation), lithium moves back out. When a lithium-based cell is discharging, the lithium is extracted from the anode and inserted into the cathode. When the cell is charging, the reverse occurs.

Useful work can only be extracted if electrons flow through a closed external circuit. The following equations are in units of moles, making it possible to use the coefficient.

The overall reaction has its limits. Overdischarge supersaturates lithium cobalt oxide, leading to the production of lithium oxide, possibly by the following irreversible reaction:

Overcharge up to 5.2 Volts leads to the synthesis of cobalt(IV) oxide, as evidenced by x-ray diffraction

In a lithium-ion battery the lithium ions are transported to and from the cathode or anode, with the transition metal, cobalt (Co), in being oxidized from Co3+ to Co4+ during charging, and reduced from Co4+ to Co3+ during discharge.

Nokia Li-ion battery for powering a mobile phone

Positive electrodes

Electrode material Average potential difference Specific capacity Specific energy 
LiCoO2 3.7 V 140 mA·h/g 0.518 kW·h/kg 
LiMn2O4 4.0 V 100 mA·h/g 0.400 kW·h/kg 
LiNiO2 3.5 V 180 mA·h/g 0.630 kW·h/kg 
LiFePO4 3.3 V 150 mA·h/g 0.495 kW·h/kg 
Li2FePO4F 3.6 V 115 mA·h/g 0.414 kW·h/kg 
LiCo1/3Ni1/3Mn1/3O2 3.6 V 160 mA·h/g 0.576 kW·h/kg 
Li(LiaNixMnyCoz)O2 4.2 V 220 mA·h/g 0.920 kW·h/kg 
[edit] Negative electrodesElectrode material Average potential difference Specific capacity Specific energy 
Graphite (LiC6) 0.1-0.2 V 372 mA·h/g 0.0372-0.0744 kW·h/kg 
Hard Carbon (LiC6) ? V ? mA·h/g ? kW·h/kg 
Titanate (Li4Ti5O12) 1-2 V 160 mA·h/g 0.16-0.32 kW·h/kg 
Si (Li4.4Si)[38] 0.5-1 V 4212 mA·h/g 2.106-4.212 kW·h/kg 
Ge (Li4.4Ge)[39] 0.7-1.2 V 1624 mA·h/g 1.137-1.949 kW·h/kg 
[edit] ElectrolytesThe cell voltages given in the Electrochemistry section are larger than the potential at which aqueous solutions can electrolyze, in addition lithium is highly reactive to water, therefore, nonaqueous or aprotic solutions are used.

Liquid electrolytes in lithium-ion batteries consist of lithium salts, such as LiPF6, LiBF4 or LiClO4 in an organic solvent, such as ethylene carbonate, dimethyl carbonate, and diethyl carbonate. A liquid electrolyte conducts lithium ions, acting as a carrier between the cathode and the anode when a battery passes an electric current through an external circuit. Typical conductivities of liquid electrolyte at room temperature (20 °C (68 °F)) are in the range of 10 mS/cm (1 S/m), increasing by approximately 30–40% at 40 °C (104 °F) and decreasing by a slightly smaller amount at 0 °C (32 °F)

Unfortunately, organic solvents easily decompose on anodes during charging. However, when appropriate organic solvents are used as the electrolyte, the solvent decomposes on initial charging and forms a solid layer called the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI), which is electrically insulating yet provides sufficient ionic conductivity. The interphase prevents decomposition of the electrolyte after the second charge. For example, ethylene carbonate is decomposed at a relatively high voltage, 0.7 V vs. lithium, and forms a dense and stable interface.

A good solution for the interface instability is the application of a new class of composite electrolytes based on POE (poly(oxyethylene)) developed by Syzdek et al. It can be either solid (high molecular weight) and be applied in dry Li-polymer cells, or liquid (low molecular weight) and be applied in regular Li-ion cells.

Another issue that Li-ion technology is facing is safety. Large scale application of Li cells in Electric Vehicles needs a dramatic decrease in the failure rate. One of the solutions is the novel technology based on reversed-phase composite electrolytes, employing porous ceramic material filled with electrolyte.

Advantages and disadvantages

Note that both advantages and disadvantages depend on the materials and design that make up the battery. This summary reflects older designs that use carbon anode, metal oxide cathodes, and lithium salt in an organic solvent for the electrolyte.

Optima ACP TZERO tubular plate lead acid batteries

Advantages 

Wide variety of shapes and sizes efficiently fitting the devices they power. 

Much lighter than other energy-equivalent secondary batteries.

High open circuit voltage in comparison to aqueous batteries (such as lead acid, nickel-metal hydride and nickel-cadmium). This is beneficial because it increases the amount of power that can be transferred at a lower current.

No memory effect. 

Self-discharge rate of approximately 5-10% per month, compared to over 30% per month in common nickel metal hydride batteries, approximately 1.25% per month for Low Self-Discharge NiMH batteries and 10% per month in nickel-cadmium batteries. According to one manufacturer, lithium-ion cells (and, accordingly, "dumb" lithium-ion batteries) do not have any self-discharge in the usual meaning of this word. What looks like a self-discharge in these batteries is a permanent loss of capacity (see Disadvantages). On the other hand, "smart" lithium-ion batteries do self-discharge, due to the drain of the built-in voltage monitoring circuit. 

Components are environmentally safe as there is no free lithium metal.

Disadvantages - Cell life

Charging forms deposits inside the electrolyte that inhibit ion transport. Over time, the cell's capacity diminishes. The increase in internal resistance reduces the cell's ability to deliver current. This problem is more pronounced in high-current applications. The decrease means that older batteries do not charge as much as new ones (charging time required decreases proportionally). 

High charge levels and elevated temperatures (whether from charging or ambient air) hasten capacity loss. Charging heat is caused by the carbon anode (typically replaced with lithium titanate which drastically reduces damage from charging, including expansion and other factors).

Internal resistance

The internal resistance of standard (Cobalt) lithium-ion batteries is high compared to both other rechargeable chemistries such as nickel-metal hydride and nickel-cadmium, and LiFePO4 and lithium-polymer cells. Internal resistance increases with both cycling and age. Rising internal resistance causes the voltage at the terminals to drop under load, which reduces the maximum current draw. Eventually increasing resistance means that the battery can no longer operate for an adequate period. 

To power larger devices, such as electric cars, connecting many small batteries in a parallel circuit is more effective and efficient than connecting a single large battery.

Safety requirements

If overheated or overcharged, Li-ion batteries may suffer thermal runaway and cell rupture.[56] In extreme cases this can lead to combustion. Deep discharge may short-circuit the cell, in which case recharging would be unsafe. To reduce these risks, Lithium-ion battery packs contain fail-safe circuitry that shuts down the battery when its voltage is outside the safe range of 3–4.2 V per cell. When stored for long periods the small current draw of the protection circuitry itself may drain the battery below its shut down voltage; normal chargers are then ineffective. Many types of lithium-ion cell cannot be charged safely below 0°C.

Other safety features are required in each cell:

* Shut-down separator (for overtemperature) 
* Tear-away tab (for internal pressure) 
* Vent (pressure relief) 
* Thermal interrupt (overcurrent/overcharging) 

These devices occupy useful space inside the cells, add additional points of failure and irreversibly disable the cell when activated. They are required because the anode produces heat during use, while the cathode may produce oxygen. These devices and improved electrode designs reduce/eliminate the risk of fire or explosion.

These safety features increase costs compared to nickel metal hydride batteries, which require only a hydrogen/oxygen recombination device (preventing damage due to mild overcharging) and a back-up pressure valve.

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